Calculating the integral $\int_0^\infty \frac{\cos x}{1+x^2}\, \mathrm{d}x$ without using complex analysis

Suppose that we do not know anything about the complex analysis (numbers). In this case, how to calculate the following integral in closed form? $$\int_0^\infty\frac{\cos x}{1+x^2}\,\mathrm{d}x$$

This can be done by the useful technique of differentiating under the integral sign.

In fact, this is exercise 10.23 in the second edition of "Mathematical Analysis" by Tom Apostol.

Here is the brief sketch (as laid out in the exercise itself).

Let $$ F(y) = \int\limits_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin xy}{x(1+x^2)} \ dx \ \ \text{for} \quad\quad y > 0$$

Show that

$\displaystyle F''(y) - F(y) + \pi/2 = 0$ and hence deduce that $\displaystyle F(y) = \frac{\pi(1-e^{-y})}{2}$.

Use this to deduce that for $y > 0$ and $a > 0$

$$\displaystyle \int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin xy}{x(x^2 + a^2)} \ dx = \frac{\pi(1-e^{-ay})}{2a^2}$$

and

$$\int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\cos xy}{x^2 + a^2} dx = \frac{\pi e^{-ay}}{2a}$$

Since $$\frac{x}{1+x^2}=\int_0^\infty e^{-y}\sin (xy) \, dy,$$ we have that $$I=\int_0^\infty \frac{\cos bx}{1+x^2} \, dx=\int_0^\infty \frac{\cos bx}{x} \, dx \int_0^\infty e^{-y}\sin (xy)\, dy.$$ Changing the order of integration (which can be justified by the standard method) yields $$I=\int_{0}^{\infty}e^{-y} \, dy \int_0^\infty \frac{\sin xy}{x} \cos bx \, dx.$$ The calculation of the integral (a.k.a. the discontinuous Dirichlet factor) $$\int_0^\infty \frac{\sin xy}{x} \cos bx \, dx = \begin{cases}0, & 0 < y < b \\\ \ \\\ \pi/2, & 0 < b < y, \end{cases}$$ can be easily reduced to the calculation of the standard Dirichlet integral. Therefore, $$I=\frac{\pi}{2}\int_{b}^{\infty}e^{-y} \, dy = \frac{\pi}{2}e^{-b}.$$

These are the methods I use to evaluate $$ \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx $$ and post it on Brilliant.org as a solution of similar problem. You can use the similar technique to evaluate $$ \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos x}{x^2+1}\,dx. $$

Method 1:

Consider the function $f(t)=e^{-a|t|}$, then the Fourier transform of $f(t)$ is given by $$ \begin{align} F(\omega)=\mathcal{F}[f(t)]&=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}f(t)e^{-i\omega t}\,dt\\ &=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}e^{-a|t|}e^{-i\omega t}\,dt\\ &=\int_{-\infty}^{0}e^{at}e^{-i\omega t}\,dt+\int_{0}^{\infty}e^{-at}e^{-i\omega t}\,dt\\ &=\lim_{u\to-\infty}\left. \frac{e^{(a-i\omega)t}}{a-i\omega} \right|_{t=u}^0-\lim_{v\to\infty}\left. \frac{e^{-(a+i\omega)t}}{a+i\omega} \right|_{0}^{t=v}\\ &=\frac{1}{a-i\omega}+\frac{1}{a+i\omega}\\ &=\frac{2a}{\omega^2+a^2}. \end{align} $$ Next, the inverse Fourier transform of $F(\omega)$ is $$ \begin{align} f(t)=\mathcal{F}^{-1}[F(\omega)]&=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}F(\omega)e^{i\omega t}\,d\omega\\ e^{-a|t|}&=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{2a}{\omega^2+a^2}e^{i\omega t}\,d\omega\\ \frac{\pi e^{-a|t|}}{a}&=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{e^{i\omega t}}{\omega^2+a^2}\,d\omega.\tag1 \end{align} $$ Now, rewrite $$ \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx=\frac{1}{2}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{\mathbb{Re}\left(e^{2ix}\right)}{x^2+2^2}\,dx.\tag2 $$ Comparing $(2)$ to $(1)$ yield $t=2$ and $a=2$. Thus, $$ \begin{align} \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx &=\frac{1}{2}\frac{\pi e^{-2\cdot|2|}}{2}\\ &=\frac{\pi}{4e^4}\\ \end{align} $$ and $$ \Large\color{blue}{\int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos x}{x^2+1}\,dx=\frac{\pi}{2e}}. $$

Method 2:

Note that: $$ \int_{y=0}^\infty e^{-(x^2+4)y}\,dy=\frac{1}{x^2+4}, $$ therefore $$ \int_{x=0}^\infty\int_{y=0}^\infty e^{-(x^2+4)y}\cos2x\,dy\,dx=\int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx $$ Rewrite $\cos2x=\Re\left(e^{-2ix}\right)$, then $$ \begin{align} \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx&=\int_{x=0}^\infty\int_{y=0}^\infty e^{-(x^2+4)y}\cos2x\,dy\,dx\\ &=\int_{y=0}^\infty\int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(yx^2+2ix+4y)}\,dx\,dy\\ &=\int_{y=0}^\infty e^{-4y} \int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(yx^2+2ix)}\,dx\,dy. \end{align} $$ In general $$ \begin{align} \int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(ax^2+bx)}\,dx&=\int_{x=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2-\frac{b^2}{4a^2}\right)\right)\,dx\\ &=\exp\left(\frac{b^2}{4a}\right)\int_{x=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2\right)\,dx\\ \end{align} $$ Let $u=x+\frac{b}{2a}\;\rightarrow\;du=dx$, then $$ \begin{align} \int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(ax^2+bx)}\,dx&=\exp\left(\frac{b^2}{4a}\right)\int_{x=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2\right)\,dx\\ &=\exp\left(\frac{b^2}{4a}\right)\int_{u=0}^\infty e^{-au^2}\,du.\\ \end{align} $$ The last form integral is Gaussian integral that equals to $\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\dfrac{\pi}{a}}$. Hence $$ \int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(ax^2+bx)}\,dx=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{a}}\exp\left(\frac{b^2}{4a}\right). $$ Thus $$ \int_{x=0}^\infty e^{-(yx^2+2ix)}\,dx=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{y}}\exp\left(\frac{(2i)^2}{4y}\right)=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{y}}\exp\left(-\frac{1}{y}\right). $$ Next $$ \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx=\frac{\sqrt{\pi}}{2}\int_{y=0}^\infty \frac{\exp\left(-4y-\frac{1}{y}\right)}{\sqrt{y}}\,dy. $$ In general $$ \begin{align} \int_{y=0}^\infty \frac{\exp\left(-ay-\frac{b}{y}\right)}{\sqrt{y}}\,dy&=2\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-av^2-\frac{b}{v^2}\right)\,dv\\ &=2\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v^2+\frac{b}{av^2}\right)\right)\,dv\\ &=2\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v^2-2\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}+\frac{b}{av^2}+2\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)\right)\,dv\\ &=2\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v-\frac{1}{v}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2-2\sqrt{ab}\right)\,dv\\ &=2\exp(-2\sqrt{ab})\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v-\frac{1}{v}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2\right)\,dv\\ \end{align} $$ The trick to solve the last integral is by setting $$ I=\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v-\frac{1}{v}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2\right)\,dv. $$ Let $t=-\frac{1}{v}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\;\rightarrow\;v=-\frac{1}{t}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\;\rightarrow\;dv=\frac{1}{t^2}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\,dt$, then $$ I_t=\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\int_{t=0}^\infty \frac{\exp\left(-a\left(-\frac{1}{t}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}+t\right)^2\right)}{t^2}\,dt. $$ Let $t=v\;\rightarrow\;dt=dv$, then $$ I_t=\int_{t=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(t-\frac{1}{t}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2\right)\,dt. $$ Adding the two $I_t$s yields $$ 2I=I_t+I_t=\int_{t=0}^\infty\left(1+\frac{1}{t^2}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)\exp\left(-a\left(t-\frac{1}{t}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2\right)\,dt. $$ Let $s=t-\frac{1}{t}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\;\rightarrow\;ds=\left(1+\frac{1}{t^2}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)dt$ and for $0<t<\infty$ is corresponding to $-\infty<s<\infty$, then $$ I=\frac{1}{2}\int_{s=-\infty}^\infty e^{-as^2}\,ds=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{a}}. $$ Thus $$ \begin{align} \int_{y=0}^\infty \frac{\exp\left(-ay-\frac{b}{y}\right)}{\sqrt{y}}\,dy&=2\exp(-2\sqrt{ab})\int_{v=0}^\infty \exp\left(-a\left(v-\frac{1}{v}\sqrt{\frac{b}{a}}\right)^2\right)\,dv\\ &=\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{a}}e^{-2\sqrt{ab}}\\ \end{align} $$ and $$ \begin{align} \int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos2x}{x^2+4}\,dx&=\frac{\sqrt{\pi}}{2}\int_{y=0}^\infty \frac{\exp\left(-4y-\frac{1}{y}\right)}{\sqrt{y}}\,dy\\ &=\frac{\sqrt{\pi}}{2}\cdot\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{4}}e^{-2\sqrt{4\cdot1}}\\ &=\frac{\pi}{4e^4}. \end{align} $$ Hence $$ \Large\color{blue}{\int_0^{\infty}\frac{\cos x}{x^2+1}\,dx=\frac{\pi}{2e}}. $$

$\newcommand{\+}{^{\dagger}} \newcommand{\angles}[1]{\left\langle\, #1 \,\right\rangle} \newcommand{\braces}[1]{\left\lbrace\, #1 \,\right\rbrace} \newcommand{\bracks}[1]{\left\lbrack\, #1 \,\right\rbrack} \newcommand{\ceil}[1]{\,\left\lceil\, #1 \,\right\rceil\,} \newcommand{\dd}{{\rm d}} \newcommand{\down}{\downarrow} \newcommand{\ds}[1]{\displaystyle{#1}} \newcommand{\expo}[1]{\,{\rm e}^{#1}\,} \newcommand{\fermi}{\,{\rm f}} \newcommand{\floor}[1]{\,\left\lfloor #1 \right\rfloor\,} \newcommand{\half}{{1 \over 2}} \newcommand{\ic}{{\rm i}} \newcommand{\iff}{\Longleftrightarrow} \newcommand{\imp}{\Longrightarrow} \newcommand{\isdiv}{\,\left.\right\vert\,} \newcommand{\ket}[1]{\left\vert #1\right\rangle} \newcommand{\ol}[1]{\overline{#1}} \newcommand{\pars}[1]{\left(\, #1 \,\right)} \newcommand{\partiald}[3][]{\frac{\partial^{#1} #2}{\partial #3^{#1}}} \newcommand{\pp}{{\cal P}} \newcommand{\root}[2][]{\,\sqrt[#1]{\vphantom{\large A}\,#2\,}\,} \newcommand{\sech}{\,{\rm sech}} \newcommand{\sgn}{\,{\rm sgn}} \newcommand{\totald}[3][]{\frac{{\rm d}^{#1} #2}{{\rm d} #3^{#1}}} \newcommand{\ul}[1]{\underline{#1}} \newcommand{\verts}[1]{\left\vert\, #1 \,\right\vert} \newcommand{\wt}[1]{\widetilde{#1}}$ $\ds{\int_{0}^{\infty}{\cos\pars{x} \over 1 + x^{2}}\dd x:\ {\large ?}}$ \begin{align} \mbox{Lets}\quad\fermi\pars{\mu} & \equiv \half\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}{\cos\pars{\mu x} \over 1 + x^{2}}\,\dd x \\[5mm] \quad\mbox{such that}\quad & \left\lbrace\begin{array}{rcl} \ds{\int_{0}^{\infty}{\cos\pars{x} \over 1 + x^{2}}\dd x} & \ds{=} & \ds{\fermi\pars{1}} \\[2mm] \ds{\fermi\pars{0}} & = & \ds{\pi \over 2} \end{array}\right. \end{align}

The differential equation is equivalent to: $$\left\lbrace \begin{array}{rcl} \fermi''\pars{\mu} - \fermi\pars{\mu} = 0 & \mbox{if} & \mu \not= 0 \\[2mm] \fermi'\pars{0^{+}} - \fermi'\pars{0^{-}} & = & -\pi \end{array}\right. $$ When $\ds{\mu \not= 0}$, the solutions are linear combinations of $\ds{\expo{\pm\mu}}$. Since $\ds{\fermi\pars{0} = {\pi \over 2}}$and the solution is continuos at $\ds{\mu = 0}$ and finite, we'll get: $$ \fermi\pars{\mu} = {\pi \over 2}\,\expo{-\verts{\mu}} $$ It satisfies $\ds{\fermi'\pars{0^{+}} - \fermi'\pars{0^{-}} = \pars{-\,{\pi \over 2}} - \pars{{\pi \over 2}} = -\pi}$

$$\color{#44f}{\large \int_{0}^{\infty}{\cos\pars{x} \over 1 + x^{2}}\dd x} =\fermi\pars{1} = {\pi \over 2}\,\expo{-\verts{1}}= \color{#44f}{\large{\pi \over 2\expo{}}} $$

The previous answer is not correct. If you use the Taylor expansion of cosine and integrate termwise you consider integrals of the following form: \begin{eqnarray} \int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{x^{a} \ dx}{1 + x^{2}} = \tfrac{\pi}{2} \sec (\tfrac{\pi a}{2}) \end{eqnarray} which is only well-defined if $-1 < a < 1$.