How can I find out when a USB device was disconnected without ejecting?

Solution 1:

Try the Console log at var/log/asl/2015.04.08.U0.80.asl or similar
(there will also be a G80 & a U501 with similar dates but it's the U0.80.asl you want)

Apr  8 17:38:35 macname kernel[0] <Notice>: disk6s1: media is not present.  
Apr  8 17:38:35 macname kernel[0] <Notice>: msdosfs_fat_uninit_vol: error 6 from msdosfs_fat_cache_flush

Tested empirically on a disposable USB key ;-)