Windows 10 update to 1511 installation fails

Something is extra or corrupt in your installation that isn't in others; so, you'll want to trim down:

1. Uninstall your antivirus, firewall and other possibly intervening software; disabling isn't enough.
2. Disable everything that doesn't need to start in msconfig to avoid further intervening trouble.
3. Run dism /online /cleanup-image /restorehealth to fix your Windows packages' health
4. Consult the Event Viewer and log files (WindowsUpdate.log, setupact.log, setuperr.log, ...)
5. Try installing again whilst using Process Monitor such that you can investigate or export a report about what is really happening before it gives the message box; it'll help figure out the last log it has written too, as well as which files and service entries were accessed last.
6. Beyond this point you could create a new user and uninstall as much software and drivers as possible; but really, at this point you might as well do a fresh Windows 10 Build 1511 install.