How to reverse the $n$ choose $k$ formula?

Solution 1:

If $X$ is only as large as $10^7$ then this is straightforward to do with computer assistance. First note the elementary inequalities $$\frac{n^k}{k!} \ge {n \choose k} \ge \frac{(n-k)^k}{k!}$$

which are close to tight when $k$ is small. If $X = {n \choose k}$, then it follows that $$n \ge \sqrt[k]{k! X} \ge n-k$$

hence that $$\sqrt[k]{k! X} + k \ge n \ge \sqrt[k]{k! X}$$

so for fixed $k$ you only have to check at most $k+1$ possible values of $n$, which is manageable when $k$ is small. You can speed up this process by factoring $X$ if you want and applying Kummer's theorem (the first bullet point in that section of the article), but computing binomial coefficients for $k$ small is straightforward so this probably isn't necessary.

For larger $k$, note that you can always assume WLOG that $n \ge 2k$ since ${n \choose k} = {n \choose n-k}$, hence you can assume that $$X = {n \choose k} \ge {2k \choose k} > \frac{4^k}{2k+1}$$

(see Erdős' proof of Bertrand's postulate for details on that last inequality). Consequently you only have to check logarithmically many values of $k$ (as a function of $X$). For example, if $X \le 10^7$ you only have to check up to $k = 14$.

In total, applying the above algorithm you only have to check $O(\log(X)^2)$ pairs $(n, k)$, and each check requires at worst $O(\log(X))$ multiplications of numbers at most as large as $X$, together with at worst a comparison of two numbers of size $O(X)$. So the above algorithm takes polynomial time in $\log(X)$.

Edit: It should be totally feasible to just factor $X$ at the sizes you're talking about, but if you want to apply the Kummer's theorem part of the algorithm to larger $X$, you don't actually have to completely factor $X$; you can probably do the Kummer's theorem comparisons on the fly by computing the greatest power of $2$ that goes into $X$, then $3$, then $5$, etc. and storing these as necessary. As a second step, if neither $X$ nor the particular binomial coefficient ${n_0 \choose k_0}$ you're testing are divisible by a given small prime $p$, you can appeal to Lucas' theorem. Of course, you have to decide at some point when to stop testing small primes and just test for actual equality.

Solution 2:

Here's an implementation in code of Qiaochu's answer. The algorithm, to recap, is:

• Input $X$. (We want to find all $(n, k)$ such that $\binom{n}{k} = X$.)

• For each $k \ge 1$ such that $4^k/(2k + 1) < X$,

  • Let $m$ be the smallest number such that $m^k \ge k!X$.

  • For each $n$ from $\max(m, 2k)$ to $m + k$ (inclusive),

    • If $\binom{n}{k} = X$, yield $(n, k)$ and $(n, n-k)$.

It is written in Python (chose this language for readability and native big integers, not for speed). It is careful to use only integer arithmetic, to avoid any errors due to floating-point precision.

The version below is optimized to avoid recomputing $\binom{n+1}{k}$ from scratch after having computed $\binom{n}{k}$; this speeds it up so that for instance for $\binom{1234}{567}$ (a $369$-digit number) it takes (on my laptop) 0.4 seconds instead of the 50 seconds taken by the unoptimized version in the first revision of this answer.

#!/usr/bin/env python
from __future__ import division
import math

def binom(n, k):
    """Returns n choose k, for nonnegative integer n and k"""
    assert k >= 0
    assert n >= 0
    assert k == int(k)
    assert n == int(n)
    k = min(k, n - k)
    ans = 1
    for i in range(k):
        ans *= n - i
        ans //= i + 1
    return ans

def first_over(k, c):
    """Binary search to find smallest value of n for which n^k >= c"""
    n = 1
    while n ** k < c:
        n *= 2
    # Invariant: lo**k < c <= hi**k
    lo = 1
    hi = n
    while hi - lo > 1:
        mid = lo + (hi - lo) // 2
        if mid ** k < c:
            lo = mid
        else:
            hi = mid
    assert hi ** k >= c
    assert (hi - 1) ** k < c
    return hi

def find_n_k(x):
    """Given x, yields all n and k such that binom(n, k) = x."""
    assert x == int(x)
    assert x > 1
    k = 0
    while True:
        k += 1
        # https://math.stackexchange.com/a/103385/205
        if (2 * k + 1) * x <= 4**k:
            break
        nmin = first_over(k, math.factorial(k) * x)
        nmax = nmin + k + 1
        nmin = max(nmin, 2 * k)
        choose = binom(nmin, k)
        for n in range(nmin, nmax):
            if choose == x:
                yield (n, k)
                if k < n - k:
                    yield (n, n - k)
            choose *= (n + 1)
            choose //= (n + 1 - k)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import sys
    if len(sys.argv) < 2:
        print('Pass X in the command to see (n, k) such that (n choose k) = X.')
        sys.exit(1)
    x = int(sys.argv[1])
    if x == 0:
        print('(n, k) for any n and any k > n, and (0, 0)')
        sys.exit(0)
    if x == 1:
        print('(n, 0) and (n, n) for any n, and (1, 1)')
        sys.exit(0)
    for (n, k) in find_n_k(x):
        print('%s %s' % (n, k))

Example runs:

~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 2
2 1
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 3
3 1
3 2
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 6 
6 1
6 5
4 2
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 10
10 1
10 9
5 2
5 3
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 20
20 1
20 19
6 3
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 55
55 1
55 54
11 2
11 9
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 120
120 1
120 119
16 2
16 14
10 3
10 7
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 3003
3003 1
3003 3002
78 2
78 76
15 5
15 10
14 6
14 8
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 8966473191018617158916954970192684
8966473191018617158916954970192684 1
8966473191018617158916954970192684 8966473191018617158916954970192683
123 45
123 78
~$ ./mse_103377_binom.py 116682544286207712305570174244760883486876241791210077037133735047856714594324355733933738740204795317223528882568337264611289789138133946725471443924278812277695432803500115699090641248357468388106131543801393801287657125117557432072695477147403395443757359171876874010770591355653882772562301453205472707597435095925666815012707478996454360460481159339802667334477440
116682544286207712305570174244760883486876241791210077037133735047856714594324355733933738740204795317223528882568337264611289789138133946725471443924278812277695432803500115699090641248357468388106131543801393801287657125117557432072695477147403395443757359171876874010770591355653882772562301453205472707597435095925666815012707478996454360460481159339802667334477440 1
116682544286207712305570174244760883486876241791210077037133735047856714594324355733933738740204795317223528882568337264611289789138133946725471443924278812277695432803500115699090641248357468388106131543801393801287657125117557432072695477147403395443757359171876874010770591355653882772562301453205472707597435095925666815012707478996454360460481159339802667334477440 116682544286207712305570174244760883486876241791210077037133735047856714594324355733933738740204795317223528882568337264611289789138133946725471443924278812277695432803500115699090641248357468388106131543801393801287657125117557432072695477147403395443757359171876874010770591355653882772562301453205472707597435095925666815012707478996454360460481159339802667334477439
1234 567
1234 667